India: A Land of Diversity and Contrast
- Tom McAndrew
- 2 hours ago
- 6 min read
India is one of the world’s most significant and fascinating countries from a geographical perspective. Located in South Asia, it is the seventh largest country by land area and the most populous nation on Earth, with a population of over 1.4 billion people. India is often described as a country of extremes and contrasts, where vast deserts lie alongside fertile river plains, and snow-covered mountains exist not far from tropical rainforests and warm coastlines. This diversity makes India an excellent case study for understanding how physical and human geography interact.
Location and Regional Importance
India lies entirely in the Northern Hemisphere, stretching from about 8°N to 37°N of latitude. It occupies a central position in South Asia and is bordered by Pakistan and Afghanistan to the north-west, China, Nepal and Bhutan to the north, and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. To the south, India is surrounded by the Indian Ocean, with the Arabian Sea to the west and the Bay of Bengal to the east.
This location has been highly significant throughout history. India’s position between East Asia, the Middle East and Africa has encouraged trade, migration and cultural exchange for thousands of years. Today, its coastal location supports major ports such as Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata, which play an important role in global trade. India’s coastline stretches for approximately 7,500 kilometres, including the mainland and island territories such as the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep.
India is a federal country made up of 28 states and 8 union territories. Each region has its own identity shaped by physical geography, language, climate and economic activities. The capital city, New Delhi, forms part of the wider Delhi metropolitan area, one of the largest urban regions in the world.
Physical Geography: Major Landscapes
India’s physical geography is highly varied and is usually divided into several major regions. These include the Himalayan Mountains, the Northern Plains, the Peninsular Plateau, the Thar Desert, the coastal plains and island groups.
The Himalayan Mountains dominate the northern edge of the country and are among the youngest and highest mountain ranges in the world. They were formed by the collision of the Indian tectonic plate with the Eurasian plate. Peaks in this region rise well above 7,000 metres, and the Himalayas act as a natural barrier, protecting India from cold winds from Central Asia. This helps to keep much of the country warmer than other regions at similar latitudes.
South of the Himalayas lie the Northern Plains, also known as the Indo-Gangetic Plain. This vast, flat region has been formed by millions of years of river deposition from the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra river systems. The soils here are extremely fertile, making the area one of the most productive agricultural regions in the world. As a result, it is also one of the most densely populated parts of India.
The Peninsular Plateau lies further south and forms the oldest part of the Indian landmass. It consists mainly of hard, igneous and metamorphic rocks and is rich in mineral resources such as coal, iron ore, bauxite and manganese. The Deccan Plateau makes up the largest part of this region and is bordered by the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats.
The Western Ghats are particularly important because they influence rainfall patterns and contain high levels of biodiversity. They are recognised as a global biodiversity hotspot and support a wide range of plant and animal species.
In the north-west of India lies the Thar Desert. This region experiences very low rainfall and high temperatures, making farming difficult. Despite this, millions of people live in the desert region, using irrigation, drought-resistant crops and traditional methods to survive in harsh conditions.
Rivers and Water Systems
India’s river systems are vital to life, agriculture and economic development. Rivers provide water for drinking, irrigation, industry and hydroelectric power, and many have cultural and religious importance.
The Himalayan rivers, such as the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Indus, are perennial rivers. This means they flow throughout the year because they are fed by both rainfall and melting snow and glaciers. The Ganges River basin is one of the most densely populated regions in the world and supports hundreds of millions of people.
The Peninsular rivers, including the Godavari, Krishna and Narmada, are mainly dependent on seasonal rainfall. These rivers are generally shorter and carry less water, but they are still essential for irrigation and local economies.
India faces increasing challenges related to water supply. Agriculture uses more than 80% of available freshwater, and rapid urban growth has increased demand for water in cities. Overuse of groundwater and pollution of rivers have added to water stress in many regions.
Climate and the Monsoon System
India experiences a wide range of climates, from alpine conditions in the Himalayas to tropical climates in the south. However, the most important climatic influence is the monsoon.
The summer monsoon usually occurs between June and September and provides most of India’s annual rainfall. Moist winds from the Indian Ocean move towards the land, bringing heavy rain to much of the country. Average annual rainfall across India is about 900 millimetres, but this varies greatly between regions.
The Western Ghats receive very high rainfall because moist air is forced to rise over the mountains, leading to condensation and rainfall. Areas on the eastern side of the Ghats receive less rain due to the rain shadow effect.
The monsoon is essential for agriculture, particularly for crops such as rice. However, it can also cause natural hazards. Heavy rainfall often leads to flooding, while intense rain in mountainous areas can trigger landslides. In recent years, climate change has increased concerns about more unpredictable and extreme monsoon patterns.
Population and Settlement
India is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.4 billion people. Population density varies significantly across the country. The Northern Plains and major urban areas have very high population densities, while mountainous regions and deserts are much more sparsely populated.
India is one of the most culturally diverse countries in the world. It has 22 officially recognised languages and hundreds of dialects. Major religions include Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism and Buddhism, all of which influence settlement patterns, festivals and cultural landscapes.
Urbanisation has increased rapidly in recent decades. Cities such as Mumbai, Delhi, Bengaluru and Chennai are major economic centres, but they face challenges such as housing shortages, traffic congestion, air pollution and pressure on water supplies. Meanwhile, many rural areas still depend heavily on agriculture for employment and income.
Economy and Natural Resources
India has one of the fastest-growing economies in the world and is considered an emerging global power. Agriculture remains a key sector, employing a large proportion of the population and producing crops such as rice, wheat, tea, sugarcane and cotton.
India is also rich in natural resources. Coal is the most important energy resource and is widely used to generate electricity. Iron ore and bauxite support steel and aluminium industries, particularly in eastern and central India.
In recent decades, the service sector has grown rapidly. India is a global leader in information technology and business services, with cities such as Bengaluru and Hyderabad acting as major technology hubs. This economic growth has helped reduce poverty but has also increased pressure on the environment.
Biodiversity and Natural Environments
India is classified as a megadiverse country due to its wide range of ecosystems and species. Its varied climate and landscapes support rainforests, mangroves, grasslands, deserts and alpine environments.
India is home to famous wildlife such as Bengal tigers, Asian elephants, snow leopards and Indian rhinoceroses. National parks and wildlife reserves play an important role in conservation, although habitat loss and human activity remain serious threats.
The Western Ghats and north-eastern India are particularly important biodiversity hotspots, containing many species found nowhere else in the world.
Environmental Challenges
India faces major environmental challenges linked to population growth, industrialisation and urbanisation. Water scarcity is becoming increasingly serious in many regions, particularly in large cities.
Flooding during the monsoon season causes damage to homes, crops and infrastructure, while droughts affect parts of western and southern India. Air pollution is a major issue, with several Indian cities recording some of the highest pollution levels globally.
Climate change is expected to increase the frequency of extreme weather events, making environmental management an increasingly important issue for India’s future development.
India is a country of immense geographical importance. Its physical landscapes, from the Himalayas to the coastal plains, strongly influence climate, settlement and economic activity. At the same time, human actions are reshaping the environment through urban growth, industrial development and resource use.
Sources
BBC Bitesize (n.d.) India. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize
CIA World Factbook (2025) India Country Profile. Available at: https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/
World Bank (2025) The World Bank in India. Available at: https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/india
National Geographic (n.d.) India Country Profile. Available at: https://www.nationalgeographic.com
Encyclopaedia Britannica (2025) India: Geography. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/place/India
Government of India Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2025) Official Website. Available at: https://moef.gov.in
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